A Systematic Literature Review on Cyberbullying in Social Media: Taxonomy, Detection Approaches, Datasets, And Future Research Directions

Article Sidebar

PDF
Published: Nov 2, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v11i10.8505
Keywords:
Cyberbullying, Sentiment analysis, Social media, Literature review, Machine learning

Main Article Content

Sahana V,  Anilkumar K M

Abstract

In the area of Natural Language Processing, sentiment analysis, also called opinion mining, aims to extract human thoughts, beliefs, and perceptions from unstructured texts. In the light of social media's rapid growth and the influx of individual comments, reviews and feedback, it has evolved as an attractive, challenging research area. It is one of the most common problems in social media to find toxic textual content.  Anonymity and concealment of identity are common on the Internet for people coming from a wide range of diversity of cultures and beliefs. Having freedom of speech, anonymity, and inadequate social media regulations make cyber toxic environment and cyberbullying significant issues, which require a system of automatic detection and prevention. As far as this is concerned, diverse research is taking place based on different approaches and languages, but a comprehensive analysis to examine them from all angles is lacking. This systematic literature review is therefore conducted with the aim of surveying the research and studies done to date on classification of  cyberbullying based in textual modality by the research community. It states the definition, , taxonomy, properties, outcome of cyberbullying, roles in cyberbullying  along with other forms of bullying and different offensive behavior in social media. This article also shows the latest popular benchmark datasets on cyberbullying, along with their number of classes (Binary/Multiple), reviewing the state-of-the-art methods to detect cyberbullying and abusive content on social media and discuss the factors that drive offenders to indulge in offensive activity, preventive actions to avoid online toxicity, and various cyber laws in different countries. Finally, we identify and discuss the challenges, solutions, additionally future research directions that serve as a reference to overcome cyberbullying in social media.

Article Details

How to Cite
Sahana V, et al. (2023). A Systematic Literature Review on Cyberbullying in Social Media: Taxonomy, Detection Approaches, Datasets, And Future Research Directions . International Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication, 11(10), 406–430. https://doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v11i10.8505
Issue
Vol. 11 No. 10 (2023)
Section
Articles
Author Biography

Sahana V,  Anilkumar K M

Sahana V1, Anilkumar K M2

1Department of Information Science and Engineering

JSS Academy of Technical Education

Bangalore, India

e-mail: sahana26@gmail.com

2Department of Computer Science and Engineering

JSS Science and Technology University

 Mysuru, India

e-mail: anilkm@sjce.ac.in

References

Omuya, E. O., Okeyo, G., & Kimwele, M. (2023). Sentiment analysis on social media tweets using dimensionality reduction and natural language processing. Engineering Reports, 5(3), e12579.

https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-global-overview-report

Available online: https://www.Oberlo.Com/Statistics/How-Many-People-Use-Social-Media (accessed on 16 April 2023).

https://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-media-strategy/new-global-social-media-research/

Corazza, M.; Menini, S.; Cabrio, E.; Tonelli, S.; Villata, S. A Multilingual Evaluation for Online Hate Speech Detection. ACM Trans. Internet Technol. 2020, 20, 1–22.

StopBullying.Gov. Available online: https://www.stopbullying.gov.

Bisht, A.; Singh, A.; Bhadauria, H.S.; Virmani, J. Detection of Hate Speech and Offensive Language in Twitter Data Using LSTM Model. Recent Trends Image Signal Process. Comput. Vis. 2020, 1124, 243–264.

Blaya, C. Cyberhate: A Review and Content Analysis of Intervention Strategies. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2018, 45, 163–172.

Chinivar, S., Roopa, M. S., Arunalatha, J. S., & Venugopal, K. R. (2022). Online offensive behaviour in socialmedia: Detection approaches, comprehensive review and future directions. Entertainment Computing, 100544.

Wikipedia, Hate Speech Definition. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_hate_speech.

Wikipedia, Misogyny Definition. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misogyny.

COLLINSDICTIONARY, Xenophobia Definition. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/xenophobia.

I. Wigmore, Troll Definition. https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/trolling/.

I.G. DICTIONARY, Cyber Aggression Definition. https://www.igiglobal.com/dictionary/cyber-aggression/6573/.

P.H. TEAM, Cyber bullying definition, 2017, https://blog.providence.org/archive/cyber-aggression-vs-cyberbullying-and-how-to-keep-your-child-safe.

B. Joseph, Cyber bullying definition, 2018, https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/cyberbullying.html.

Stopbullying.gov, Cyber Bullying Definition. https://www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/what-is-it/.

A. INGHAM, Cyber bullying instance, 2018, https://www.familyorbit.com/blog/real-life-cyberbullying-horror-stories/.

J. Raskauskas, A.D. Stoltz, Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents, Dev. Psychol. 43 (3) (2007) 564–575.

K.R. Williams, N.G. Guerra, Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying, J. Adolesc. Health 41 (6) (2007) 14–21.

M.L. Ybarra, K.J. Mitchell, Youth engaging in online harassment: associations with caregiver-child relationships, internet use, and personal characteristics, J. Adolesc. 27 (3) (2004) 319–336.

S.D. Freis, R.A.R. Gurung, A facebook analysis of helping behavior in online bullying, Psychol. Pop. Media Cult. 2 (1) (2013) 11–19.

R.M. Kowalski, S.P. Limber, P.W. Agatston, Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

J.A. Casas, R. Del Rey, R. Ortega-Ruiz, Bullying and cyberbullying: convergent and divergent predictor variables, Comput. Human Behav. 29 (3) (2013) 580–587.

J.W. Patchin, S. Hinduja, Bullies move beyond the schoolyard, Youth Violence Juv. Justice 4 (2) (2006) 148–169.

R.S. Tokunaga, Following you home from school: a critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization, Comput. Human Behav. 26 (3) (2010) 277–287.

Chan, T. K., Cheung, C. M., & Lee, Z. W. (2021). Cyberbullying on social networking sites: A literature review and future research directions. Information & Management, 58(2), 103411.

L.A. McFarland, R.E. Ployhart, Social media: a contextual framework to guide research and practice, J. Appl. Psychol. 100 (6) (2015) 1653–1677.

S. Bastiaensens, H. Vandebosch, K. Poels, K. Van Cleemput, A. DeSmet, I. De Bourdeaudhuij, Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully, Comput. Human Behav. 31 (February 2014) (2014) 259–271.

Azumah, S. W., Elsayed, N., ElSayed, Z., & Ozer, M. (2023). Cyberbullying in Text Content Detection: An Analytical Review. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.10502.

Hang, O.C.; Dahlan, H.M. Cyberbullying Lexicon for Social Media. In Proceedings of the Research and Innovation in Information Systems (ICRIIS), Johor Bahru, Malaysia, 2–3 December 2019; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 1–6.

Sangwan, S.R.; Bhatia, M.P.S. Denigration Bullying Resolution UsingWolf Search Optimized Online Reputation Rumour Detection. Procedia Comput. Sci. 2020, 173, 305–314.

Colton, D.; Hofmann, M. Sampling Techniques to Overcome Class Imbalance in a Cyberbullying Context. Comput. Linguist. Res. 2019, 3, 21–40.

Qodir, A.; Diponegoro, A.M.; Safaria, T. Cyberbullying, Happiness, and Style of Humor among Perpetrators: Is There a Relationship? Humanit. Soc. Sci. Rev. 2019, 7, 200–206. [CrossRef]

Peled, Y. Cyberbullying and Its Influence on Academic, Social, and Emotional Development of Undergraduate Students. Heliyon 2019, 5, e01393.

Dhillon, G.; Smith, K.J. Defining Objectives for Preventing Cyberstalking. Bus. Ethics 2019, 157, 137–158.

la Vega, D.; Mojica, L.G.; Ng, V. Modeling Trolling in Social Media Conversations. In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC), Miyazaki, Japan, 7–12 May 2018; pp. 3701–3706.

Hassan, S.; Yacob, M.I.; Nguyen, T.; Zambri, S. Social Media Influencer and Cyberbullying: A Lesson Learned from Preliminary Findings. In Proceedings of the 9th Knowledge Management International Conference (KMICe), Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia, 25–27 July 2018; pp. 200–205.

Raisi, E.; Huang, B. Weakly Supervised Cyberbullying Detection Using Co-Trained Ensembles of Embedding Models. In Proceedings of the Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), Barcelona, Spain, 28–31 August 2018; pp. 479–486.

Willard, N.E. Cyberbullying and Cyberthreats: Responding to the Challenge of Online Social Aggression, Threats, and Distress; Research Press: Champaign, IL, USA, 2007.

L.A. McFarland, R.E. Ployhart, Social media: a contextual framework to guide research and practice, J. Appl. Psychol. 100 (6) (2015) 1653–1677.

G.C. Kane, M. Alavi, G. Labianca, S.P. Borgatti, What’s different about social media networks? A framework and research agenda, Mis Q. 38 (1) (2014) 274–304.

J. Barlin´ska, A. Szuster, M. Winiewski, Cyberbullying among adolescent bystanders: role of the communication medium, form of violence, and empathy, J. Commun. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 23 (1) (2013) 37–51.

T.K.H. Chan, C.M.K. Cheung, R.Y.M. Wong, Cyberbullying on social networking sites: the crime opportunity and affordance perspectives, J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 36 (2) (2019) 574–609.

R.M. Kowalski, S.P. Limber, P.W. Agatston, Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age, Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

D. Olweus, Bullying at School: What We Know and What We Can Do (understanding Children’s Worlds), Blackwell, Malden, MA, 1993.

H.J. Thomas, J.P. Connor, J.G. Scott, Integrating traditional bullying and cyberbullying: challenges of definition and measurement in adolescents – a review, Educ. Psychol. Rev. 27 (March 2015) (2015) 135–152.

P.K. Smith, G. Steffgen, Cyberbullying Through the New Media: Findings From an International Network, Psychology Press, 2013.

E. Menesini, A. Nocentini, Definitions of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying Through the New Media, Psychology Press, 2013, pp. 41–54.

E. Menesini, A. Nocentini, M. Camodeca, Morality, values, traditional bullying, and cyberbullying in adolescence, Br. J. Dev. Psychol. 31 (1) (2013) 1–14.

R. Slonje, P.K. Smith, Cyberbullying: another main type of bullying? Scand. J. Psychol. 49 (2) (2008) 147–154.

T. Vaillancourt, P. McDougall, S. Hymel, A. Krygsman, J. Miller, K. Stiver, C. Davis, Bullying: Are researchers and children/youth talking about the same thing? Int. J. Behav. Dev. 32 (6) (2008) 486–495.

J. Pyz?alski, From cyberbullying to electronic aggression: typology of the phenomenon, Emot. Behav. Difficulties 17 (3–4) (2012) 305–317.

M. Rachoene, T. Oyedemi, From self-expression to social aggression: cyberbullying culture among south african youth on facebook, Communication 41 (3) (2015) 302–319.

R. Dredge, J. Gleeson, X. de la Piedad Garcia, Cyberbullying in social networking sites: an adolescent victim’s perspective, Comput. Human Behav. 36 (July 2014) (2014) 13–20

H. Cowie, C.-A. Myers, Bullying amongst university students in the uk, Int. J. Emot. Educ. 6 (1) (2014) 66–75.

T.R. Nansel, M. Overpeck, R.S. Pilla, W.J. Ruan, B. Simons-Morton, P. Scheidt, Bullying behaviors among us youth: prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment, JAMA 285 (16) (2001) 2094–2100.

W. Cassidy, C. Faucher, M. Jackson, Cyberbullying among youth: a comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and application to policy and practice, Sch. Psychol. Int. 34 (6) (2013) 575–612.

S. Bastiaensens, H. Vandebosch, K. Poels, K. Van Cleemput, A. DeSmet, I. de Bourdeaudhuij, ‘Can i afford to help?’ how affordances of communication modalities guide bystanders’ helping intentions towards harassment on social network sites, Behav. Inform. Technol. 34 (4) (2015) 425–435.

A. Bandura, Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Effects, Routledge, 2009, pp. 110–140.

P.B. Lowry, J. Zhang, C. Wang, M. Siponen, Why do adults engage in cyberbullying on social media? An integration of online disinhibition and deindividuation effects with the social structure and social learning model, Inf. Syst. Res. 27 (4) (2016) 962–986.

S. Camacho, K. Hassanein, M. Head, Cyberbullying impacts on victims’ satisfaction with information and communication technologies: the role of perceived cyberbullying severity, Inf. Manag. 55 (4) (2018) 494–507.

N. Brody, A.L. Vangelisti, Bystander intervention in cyberbullying, Commun. Monogr. 83 (1) (2015) 1–26.

J. Anderson, M. Bresnahan, C. Musatics, Combating weight-based cyberbullying on facebook with the dissenter effect, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 17 (5) (2014) 281–286.

M. Weber, M. Ziegele, A. Schnauber, Blaming the victim: the effects of extraversion and information disclosure on guilt attributions in cyberbullying, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 16 (4) (2013) 254–259.

R. Thornberg, L. Wa¨nstro¨m, J.S. Hong, D.L. Espelage, Classroom relationship qualities and social-cognitive correlates of defending and passive bystanding in school bullying in sweden: a multilevel analysis, J. Sch. Psychol. 63 (August 2017) (2017) 49–62.

S. Wachs, A. Go¨rzig, M.F. Wright, W. Schubarth, L. Bilz, Associations among adolescents’ relationships with parents, peers, and teachers, self-efficacy, and willingness to intervene in bullying: a social cognitive approach, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17 (2) (2020) 420–436.

W. Troop-Gordon, C.A. Frosch, C.M.W. Totura, A.N. Bailey, J.D. Jackson, R.D. Dvorak, Predicting the development of pro-bullying bystander behavior: a short-term longitudinal analysis, J. Sch. Psychol. 77 (December 2019) (2019) 77–89.

D.J. Meter, S. Bauman, Moral disengagement about cyberbullying and parental monitoring: effects on traditional bullying and victimization via cyberbullying involvement, J. Early Adolesc. 38 (3) (2018) 303–326.

L. Chen, S.S. Ho, M.O. Lwin, A meta-analysis of factors predicting cyberbullying perpetration and victimization: from the social cognitive and media effects approach, New Media Soc. 19 (8) (2016) 194–1213.

B.S. Xiao, Y.M. Wong, Cyber-bullying among university students: an empirical investigation from the social cognitive perspective, Int. J. Bus. Inform. 8 (1) (2013) 34–69.

K. Bussey, S. Fitzpatrick, A. Raman, The role of moral disengagement and self- efficacy in cyberbullying, J. Sch. Violence 14 (1) (2015) 30–46.

D. Mann, Emotional Troubles for ‘Cyberbullies’ and Victims. WebMD Health News, 6 July 2010. http://www.webmd.com/parenting/news/20100706/emotional-troublesfor-cyberbullies- and-victims. Accessed 24 Aug 2015

T. Wiguna, I.R. Ismail, R. Sekartini, N.S.W. Rahardjo, F. Kaligis, A.L. Prabowo, R. Hendarmo, The gender discrepancy in high-risk behaviour outcomes in adolescents who have experienced cyberbullying in Indonesia. Asian J. Psychiatry 37 (2018) (Elsevier)

C. Nixon, Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health, in Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics (2014), p. 143

B. Haidar, M. Chamoun, A. Serhrouchni, Multilingual cyberbullying detection system, detect- ing cyberbullying in Arabic content, in 1st Cyber Security in Networking Conference (CSNet) (IEEE, 2017)

A. Bellmore, A.J. Calvin, J.-M. Xu, X. Zhu, The five w’s of’ bullying’ on twitter: who, what, why, where, and when, Comput. Human Behav. 44 (March 2015) (2015) 305–314.

C. Salmivalli, Participant role approach to school bullying: implications for intervention, J. Adolesc. 22 (4) (1999) 453–459.

S. Pabian, C.J.S. De Backer, H. Vandebosch, Dark triad personality traits and adolescent cyber-aggression, Pers. Individ. Dif. 75 (March 2015) (2015) 41–46.

S. Alhabash, A.R. McAlister, A. Hagerstrom, E.T. Quilliam, N.J. Rifon, J. Richards, Between likes and shares: effects of emotional appeal and virality on the persuasiveness of anticyberbullying messages on facebook, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 16 (3) (2013) 175–182.

V. Balakrishnan, S. Khan, T. Fernandez, H.R. Arabnia, Cyberbullying detection on twitter using big five and dark triad features, Pers. Individ. Dif. 141 (15 April 2019) (2019) 252–257.

M.P. Hamm, A.S. Newton, A. Chisholm, J. Shulhan, A.M. Milne, P. Sundar, H. Ennis, S. Scott, L. Hartling, Prevalence and effect of cyberbullying on children and young people: a scoping review of social media studies, JAMA Pediatr. 169 (8) (2015) 770–777.

A. Ioannou, J. Blackburn, G. Stringhini, E. De Cristofaro, N. Kourtellis, M. Sirivianos, From risk factors to detection and intervention: a practical proposal for future work on cyberbullying, Behav. Inf. Technol. 37 (3) (2018) 258–266.

K. Gahagan, J.M. Vaterlaus, L.R. Frost, College student cyberbullying on social networking sites: conceptualization, prevalence, and perceived bystander responsibility, Comput. Human Behav. 55 (Part B (February 2016) (2016) 1097–1105.

A. Chan, J.S. Antoun, K.C. Morgaine, M. Farella, Accounts of bullying on twitter in relation to dentofacial features and orthodontic treatment, J. Oral Rehabil. 44 (4) (2017) 244–250.

R. Dredge, J.F.M. Gleeson, X. de la Piedad Garcia, Risk factors associated with impact of severity of cyberbullying victimization: a qualitative study of adolescent online social networking, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 17 (5) (2014) 287–291.

M.C. McHugh, S.L. Saperstein, R.S. Gold, Omg u# cyberbully! An exploration of public discourse about cyberbullying on twitter, Health Educ. Behav. 46 (1) (2019) 97–105.

F. Resnik, A. Bellmore, J.-M. Xu, X. Zhu, Celebrities emerge as advocates in tweets about bullying, Transl. Issues Psychol. Sci. 2 (3) (2016) 323–334.

G. Sterner, D. Felmlee, The social networks of cyberbullying on twitter, Int. J. Technoethics 8 (2) (2017) 1–15.

E. Shultz, R. Heilman, K.J. Hart, Cyber-bullying: An exploration of bystander behavior and motivation, Cyberpsychology 8 (4) (2014). Article 3.

A.J. Calvin, A. Bellmore, J.-M. Xu, X. Zhu, #bully: uses of hashtags in posts about bullying on twitter, J. Sch. Violence 14 (1) (2015) 133–153.

R. Dredge, J. Gleeson, X. de la Piedad Garcia, Cyberbullying in social networking sites: an adolescent victim’s perspective, Comput. Human Behav. 36 (July 2014) (2014) 13–20.

S.-H. Lee, H.-W. Kim, Why people post benevolent and malicious comments online, Association for Computing Machinery, Commun. ACM 58 (11) (2015) 74–79.

L. Bowler, C. Knobel, E. Mattern, From cyberbullying to well-being: a narrative- based participatory approach to values-oriented design for social media, J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 66 (6) (2015) 1274–1293

A. Sengupta, A. Chaudhuri, Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? Evidence from survey data, Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 33 (2) (2011) 284–290.

P.B. Lowry, G.D. Moody, S. Chatterjee, Using it design to prevent cyberbullying, J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 34 (3) (2017) 863–901.

C.M. Kokkinos, E. Baltzidis, D. Xynogala, Prevalence and personality correlates of facebook bullying among university undergraduates, Comput. Human Behav. 55 (Part B (February 2016)) (2016) 840–850.

M. Hood, A.L. Duffy, Understanding the relationship between cyber-victimisation and cyber-bullying on social network sites: the role of moderating factors, Pers. Individ. Dif. 133 (15 October 2018) (2018) 103–108.

G.C.E. Kwan, M.M. Skoric, Facebook bullying: an extension of battles in school, Comput. Human Behav. 29 (1) (2013) 16–25.

A. Lyndon, J. Bonds-Raacke, A.D. Cratty, College students’ facebook stalking of ex-partners, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 14 (12) (2011) 711–716.

D. Wegge, H. Vandebosch, S. Eggermont, M. Walrave, The strong, the weak, and the unbalanced: the link between tie strength and cyberaggression on a social network site, Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 33 (3) (2014) 1–28.

E. Whittaker, R.M. Kowalski, Cyberbullying via social media, J. Sch. Violence 14 (1) (2015) 11–29.

C.J. Case, D.L. King, Internet trolling in social networking sites: a preliminary investigation of undergraduate student victimzation, J. Bus. Behav. Sci. 29 (Fall 2017) (2017) 32–43.

J. Chapin, Adolescents and cyber bullying: the precaution adoption process model, Educ. Inf. Technol. 21 (4) (2016) 719–728.

J. Chapin, Adolescents and cyber bullying: the precaution adoption process model, Educ. Inf. Technol. 21 (4) (2016) 719–728.

S. Horner, Y. Asher, G.D. Fireman, The impact and response to electronic bullying and traditional bullying among adolescents, Comput. Human Behav. 49 (August 2015) (2015) 288–295.

Y. Ophir, C.S.C. Asterhan, B.B. Schwarz, The digital footprints of adolescent depression, social rejection and victimization of bullying on facebook, Comput. Human Behav. 91 (February 2019) (2019) 62–71.

J.V. Peluchette, K. Karl, C. Wood, J. Williams, Cyberbullying victimization: do victims’ personality and risky social network behaviors contribute to the problem? Comput. Human Behav. 52 (November 2015) (2015) 424–435

M. Wright, Cyberbullying victimization through social networking sites and adjustment difficulties: the role of parental mediation, J. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 19 (2) (2018) 113–123.

M. Obermaier, N. Fawzi, T. Koch, Bystanding or standing by? How the number of bystanders affects the intention to intervene in cyberbullying, New Media Soc. 18 (8) (2014) 1–7.

S.D. Freis, R.A.R. Gurung, A facebook analysis of helping behavior in online bullying, Psychol. Pop. Media Cult. 2 (1) (2013) 11–19.

S. Bastiaensens, H. Vandebosch, K. Poels, K. Van Cleemput, A. DeSmet, I. De Bourdeaudhuij, Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully, Comput. Human Behav. 31 (February 2014) (2014) 259–271.

J. Barlinska, A. Szuster, M. Winiewski, The role of short- and long-term cognitive empathy activation in preventing cyberbystander reinforcing cyberbullying behavior, Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 18 (4) (2015) 241–244.

B. Cao, W.-Y. Lin, How do victims react to cyberbullying on social networking sites? The influence of previous cyberbullying victimization experiences, Comput. Human Behav. 52 (November 2015) (2015) 458–465.

S. Gearhart, W. Zhang, Gay bullying and online opinion expression: testing spiral of silence in the social media environment, Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 32 (1) (2014) 18–36.

B. Holfeld, Perceptions and attributions of bystanders to cyber bullying, Comput. Human Behav. 38 (September 2014) (2014) 1–7.

T. van Laer, The means to justify the end: combating cyber harassment in social media, J. Bus. Ethics 123 (August 2014) (2014) 85–98.

A.N.-M. Leung, N. Wong, J.M. Farver, You are what you read: the belief systems of cyber-bystanders on social networking sites, Front. Psychol. 9 (365) (2018) 1–11.

H. Machackova, J. Pfetsch, Bystanders’ responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying: the role of empathy and normative beliefs about aggression, Scand. J. Psychol. 57 (2) (2016) 169–176.

H.L. Schacter, S. Greenberg, J. Juvonen, Who’s to blame?: the effects of victim disclosure on bystander reactions to cyberbullying, Comput. Human Behav. 57 (April 2016) (2016) 115–121.

M.A. Al-garadi, K.D. Varathan, S.D. Ravana, Cybercrime detection in online communications: the experimental case of cyberbullying detection in the twitter network, Comput. Human Behav. 63 (October 2016) (2016) 433–443.

P. Gal´an-García, J.Gdl. Puerta, C.L. Go´mez, I. Santos, P.G. Bringas, Supervised machine learning for the detection of troll profiles in twitter social network: application to a real case of cyberbullying, Log. J. IGPL 24 (1) (2016) 42–53.

R. Garett, L.R. Lord, S.D. Young, Associations between social media and cyberbullying: a review of the literature, mHealth. 2 (2016) 46.

T. Milosevic, Social media companies’ cyberbullying policies, Int. J. Commun. 10 (2016) 5164–5185.

Mangaonkar, A.; Hayrapetian, A.; Raje, R. Collaborative Detection of Cyberbullying Behavior in Twitter Data. In Proceedings of the Electro/Information technology (EIT), Dekalb, IL, USA, 21–23 May 2015; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2015; pp. 611–616.

Waseem, Z.; Hovy, D. Hateful Symbols or Hateful People? Predictive Features for Hate Speech Detection on Twitter. In Proceedings of the NAACL Student Research Workshop, San Diego, CA, USA, 1 June 2016; pp. 88–93.

Zhao, R.; Zhou, A.; Mao, K. Automatic Detection of Cyberbullying on Social Networks Based on Bullying Features. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Distributed Computing and Networking, New York, NY, USA, 4 January 2016; pp. 1–6.

Singh, V.K.; Huang, Q.; Atrey, P.K. Cyberbullying Detection Using Probabilistic Socio-Textual Information Fusion. In Proceedings of the Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), San Francisco, CA, USA, 18–21 August 2016; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 884–887.

Available online: https://www.Ra.Ethz.Ch/Cdstore/Www2009/Caw2.Barcelonamedia.Org/Index.Html (accessed on 3 July 2020).

Al-garadi, M.A.; Varathan, K.D.; Ravana, S.D. Cybercrime Detection in Online Communications: The Experimental Case of Cyberbullying Detection in the Twitter Network. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2016, 63, 433–443.

Hosseinmardi, H.; Rafiq, R.I.; Han, R.; Lv, Q.; Mishra, S. Prediction of Cyberbullying Incidents in a Media-Based Social Network. In Proceedings of the Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), San Francisco, CA, USA, 18–21 August 2016; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 186–192.

Zhang, X.; Tong, J.; Vishwamitra, N.; Whittaker, E.; Mazer, J.P.; Kowalski, R.; Hu, H.; Luo, F.; Macbeth, J.; Dillon, E. Cyberbullying Detection with a Pronunciation Based Convolutional Neural Network. In Proceedings of the 15th IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and Applications (ICMLA), Anaheim, CA, USA, 18–20 December 2016; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 740–745.

Wulczyn, E.; Thain, N.; Dixon, L. Ex Machina: Personal Attacks Seen at Scale. In Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web, Perth, Australia, 3 April 2017; pp. 1391–1399.

Davidson, T.; Warmsley, D.; Macy, M.; Weber, I. Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Language. Int. AAAI Conf. Web Soc. Media 2017, 11, 512–515.

Founta, A.-M.; Djouvas, C.; Chatzakou, D.; Leontiadis, I.; Blackburn, J.; Stringhini, G.; Vakali, A.; Sirivianos, M.; Kourtellis, N. Large Scale Crowdsourcing and Characterization of Twitter Abusive Behavior. In Proceedings of the Weblogs and Social Media (ICWSM), Palo Alto, CA, USA, 25–28 June 2018; pp. 491–500.

de Gibert, O.; Perez, N.; García-Pablos, A.; Cuadros, M. Hate Speech Dataset from a White Supremacy Forum. In Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Abusive Language Online (ALW2), Brussels, Belgium, 31 October 2018; pp. 11–20.

Banerjee, V.; Telavane, J.; Gaikwad, P.; Vartak, P. Detection of Cyberbullying Using Deep Neural Network. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Advanced Computing & Communication Systems (ICACCS), Piscataway, NJ, USA, 15 March 2019; pp. 604–607.

Sadiq, S.; Mehmood, A.; Ullah, S.; Ahmad, M.; Choi, G.S.; On, B.-W. Aggression Detection through Deep Neural Model on Twitter. Futur. Gener. Comput. Syst. 2021, 114, 120–129.

Kumar, A.; Sachdeva, N. A Bi-GRU with Attention and CapsNet Hybrid Model for Cyberbullying Detection on Social Media. World Wide Web 2022, 25, 1537–1550.

Atoum, J.O. Detecting Cyberbullying from Tweets Through Machine Learning Techniques with Sentiment Analysis. In Advances in Information and Communication; Arai, K., Ed.; Springer Nature: Cham, Switzerland, 2023; pp. 25–38.

Hate Speech Twitter Annotations. Available online: https://github.com/ZeerakW/hatespeech (accessed on 9 August 2020).

Wikipedia Detox. Available online: https://github.com/ewulczyn/wiki-detox (accessed on 20 August 2020).

Used a Crowd-Sourced Hate Speech Lexicon to Collect Tweets Containing Hate Speech Keywords. We Use Crowd-Sourcing to Label a Sample of These Tweets into Three Categories: Those Containing Hate Speech, Only Offensive Language, and Those with Neither. Available online: https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.04009 (accessed on 16 February 2023).

Hate and Abusive Speech on Twitter. Available online: https://github.com/ENCASEH2020/hatespeech-twitter (accessed on 22 August 2020).

Hate Speech Dataset from a White Supremacist Forum. Available online: https://github.com/Vicomtech/hate-speech-dataset (accessed on 18 November 2022).

Available online: https://www.Kaggle.Com/Datasets/Dataturks/Dataset-for-Detection-of-Cybertrolls (accessed on 10 February 2022).

Lingiardi, V.; Carone, N.; Semeraro, G.; Musto, C.; D’amico, M.; Brena, S. Mapping Twitter Hate Speech towards Social and Sexual Minorities: A Lexicon-Based Approach to Semantic Content Analysis. Behav. Inf. Technol. 2019, 39, 711–721.

Alloghani, M.; Al-Jumeily, D.; Mustafina, J.; Hussain, A.; Aljaaf, A.J. A Systematic Review on Supervised and Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Data Science; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020.

Alsharif, M.H.; Kelechi, A.H.; Yahya, K.; Chaudhry, S.A. Machine Learning Algorithms for Smart Data Analysis in Internet of Things Environment: Taxonomies and Research Trends. Symmetry 2020, 12, 88.

Rout, J.K.; Dalmia, A.; Choo, K.-K.R.; Bakshi, S.; Jena, S.K. Revisiting Semi-Supervised Learning for Online Deceptive Review Detection. IEEE Access 2017, 5, 1319–1327.

Li, Z.; Fan, Y.; Jiang, B.; Lei, T.; Liu, W. A Survey on Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining for Social Multimedia. Multimed. Tools Appl. 2019, 78, 6939–6967.

Ay Karakus¸, B.; Talo, M.; Hallaç, I?.R.; Aydin, G. Evaluating Deep Learning Models for Sentiment Classification. Concurr. Comput.Pract. Exp. 2018, 30, 1–14.

Asghar, M.Z.; Khan, A.; Ahmad, S.; Qasim, M.; Khan, I.A. Lexicon-Enhanced Sentiment Analysis Framework Using Rule-Based Classification Scheme. Peer-Rev. Open Access Sci. J. (PLoS ONE) 2017, 12, e0171649.

Khan, F.H.; Qamar, U.; Bashir, S. Lexicon Based Semantic Detection of Sentiments Using Expected Likelihood Estimate Smoothed Odds Ratio. Artif. Intell. Rev. 2017, 48, 113–138.

Ahmed, M.; Chen, Q.; Li, Z. Constructing Domain-Dependent Sentiment Dictionary for Sentiment Analysis. Neural Comput. Appl.2020, 32, 14719–14732.

Nandhini, B.S.; Sheeba, J.I. Cyberbullying Detection and Classification Using Information Retrieval Algorithm. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Research in Computer Science Engineering & Technology (ICARCSET), Tamilnadu, India, 15–16 March 2015; pp. 1–5.

Badjatiya, P.; Gupta, S.; Gupta, M.; Varma, V. Deep Learning for Hate Speech Detection in Tweets. In Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion, Republic and Canton of Geneva, Switzerland, 3–7 April 2017; pp. 759–760.

Park, J.H.; Fung, P. One-Step and Two-Step Classification for Abusive Language Detection on Twitter. In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Abusive Language Online, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 4 August 2017; pp. 41–45.

Watanabe, H.; Bouazizi, M.; Ohtsuki, T. Hate Speech on Twitter: A Pragmatic Approach to Collect Hateful and Offensive Expressions and Perform Hate Speech Detection. IEEE Access 2018, 6, 13825–13835.

Wang, W.; Huang, J.-t.; Wu, W.; Zhang, J.; Huang, Y.; Li, S.; He, P.; Lyu, M. MTTM: Metamorphic Testing for Textual Content Moderation Software. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE), Lisbon, Portugal, 14–20 May 2023; pp. 1–13.

Wang, W.; Huang, J.-t.; Wu, W.; Zhang, J.; Huang, Y.; Li, S.; He, P.; Lyu, M. MTTM: Metamorphic Testing for Textual Content Moderation Software. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE), Lisbon, Portugal, 14–20 May 2023; pp. 1–13.

Roy, P.K.; Tripathy, A.K.; Das, T.K.; Gao, X.-Z. A Framework for Hate Speech Detection Using Deep Convolutional Neural Network. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 204951–204962.

Yadav, A.; Vishwakarma, D.K. Sentiment Analysis Using Deep Learning Architectures: A Review. Artif. Intell. Rev. 2020, 53, 4335–4385.

A. Cuncic, Factors that indulge people in exhibiting offensive behaviour, 2022, https://www.verywellmind.com/the-psychology-of-cyberbullying-5086615.

C. Faucher, W. Cassidy, M. Jackson, Awareness, policy, privacy, and more: Post-secondary students voice their solutions to cyberbullying, Eur. J. Invest. Health Psychol. Educ. 10 (3) (2020) 795–815.

D. CYBERBULLYING, Preventing Cyberbullying. https://www.endcyberbullying. net/preventing-cyberbullying.

S. Saurel, How to stop and prevent cyberbullying in social media, 2019, https://hotinsocialmedia.com/cyberbullying-in-social-media/

S.K. Arora, Cyberbullying laws in India, Int. J. Law Manage. Humanit. 3 (2020) 351.